The current ELT Approaches

THE ANALYSIS OF A READING LESSON


INTRODUCTION

I chose a lesson from www.english-to-go.com. This website offers ESL lessons with fun, engaging, up-to-date resources based on Reuters® news articles. The reading text used in the lesson is taken from the Reuters® news article “An Eel Pet” dated January 7, 2003 (see Appendix 1-5). When noticing that the lesson is intended for elementary level, I assume it will be suitable for Year 8 students (second grade of Junior High School) in Indonesia. The skill focus is reading. However, at the end of the session, students should engage in a speaking activity using similar topic. I am going to analyse this lesson using current approaches in ELT listed below:
1. Genre-based approach to learning (Mauchlan 2005, Hammond, et al 1992)
2. Task-based approach to learning (Sanchez 2004)
3. Autonomous learning
4. Content-based approach to learning
5. Focus on form, focus on forms, and focus on meaning
6. Language-based theory of learning (Halliday 1993)
7. Problem-based learning


1. GENRE-BASED APPROACH TO LEARNING
This approach, which draws on the functional model of the language, was developed by Halliday (1978, 1994). Students are encouraged to analyze different text types available in daily life to develop the communicative competence. They are guided to identify that each text type has its own function, schematic structure, and grammatical pattern. The terminal objective of applying this approach is to that students are able to produce different kind of text types related to their needs.

The types of text include transactional conversations, interpersonal
conversations, short functional texts, monologs and essays of certain genres. Based on Well’s taxonomy (1987), the junior high school literacy level is the functional level. After graduating, students are expected to use English for survival purposes such as carrying transactional exchanges, reading for fun, or reading popular science for teenagers. Therefore the genres for this level will be procedure, descriptive, recount, narrative, and report.

ANALYSIS

The genre (text type) of the lesson is a news item taken from an authentic news (Reuters® news article “An Eel Pet” dated January 7, 2003). Based on Well’s taxonomy, news items is more appropriate for senior high school level. However, this news is very short so I think it is not too difficul for Year 8 students (not far beyond the ZPD). The social function is to inform readers about an unusual event. The text has a specific schematic structure (logical structure) :
· headline : Family Keeps Pet Eel in Bath -- for 33 Years
· summary of event : 1st sentence
· background event : what happened, to whom, in what circumstances
· sources : comments by participant, “He’s a part of our family,” said Hannelore Richer of Bochum in western Germany.
This text is using particular grammatical patterns: verbs of actions to retell story (Simple Past and Present Perfect).

According to Vygotsky (1978) teaching should provide systematic guidance and support to "scaffold" learners in achieving their potential level of performance. By the interaction and assistance from experienced others (teachers and peers), learners can finally achieve their potential by completing the task alone. Based on scaffolding, a teaching-learning cycle is proposed to teach genre. The cycle has five stages (Feez & Joyce 1998; Hyland 2004):
(a) Context building: experiencing and exploring the purpose, context and audience of the genre
# This lesson build up and extend vocabulary relevant to the topic. It can be seen in Activity A, B, and C
(b) Modelling: analyzing the genre to reveal structural patterns and linguistic features
# Students are guided to find the sequence of the event (activity D)
(c) Joint construction: guided, teacher-supported practice of genre;
# This is done through Activity C and D to explore the content of the text.
While in Post-Reading Activity A, students are guided to use the grammatical pattern used in the text.
(d) Independent construction monitored by the teacher
# In Post-Reading Activity B and C, students are working in groups.
(e) Comparing; linking what is learnt to other genres and contexts
# In Activity D, students use the vocabulary and grammatical pattern learnt in a conversation. They link what they learnt from the text to other genre (transactional exchanges). This enables learners to critique and exploit the linguistic possibilities of the genre (Macken-Horarik 2002).

2. TASK-BASED APPROACH TO LEARNING
Unlike in the past, teachers nowadays are required to design tasks or projects which are not aimed to reinforce one particular structure, function or vocabulary group but to exploit a wider range of language. In many cases, students may also be using a range of different communicative language skills such as in producing posters, brochures, pamphlets, oral presentations, radio plays, videos, websites or drama.
In task-based approach to learning, the tasks are central to the learning activity. Developed by N Prabhu (1987), this approach is based on the belief that students may learn more effectively when their minds are focused on the task, rather than on the language they use. Jane Willis presents A Framework for Task-Based Learning in a three stage process:
· Pre-task - Introduction to the topic and task.
· Task cycle – Task, planning and report
· Language focus - Analysis and practice.
Task-based learning can be very effective at Intermediate levels and beyond because the teacher does not introduce and 'present' language or interfere ('help') during the task cycle. The teacher is an observer during the task phase and becomes a language informant only during the 'language focus' stage.

ANALYSIS

The lesson is using the learning stages suggested by Willis :
· Pre-task - Introduction to the topic and task.
# Pre-reading activities which include Discussion, Vocabulary and Predicting are aimed to introduce the topic of the text and task. This is language input.
· Task cycle – Task, planning and report
# Reading activity helps student to pay attention on the content of the text.
· Language focus - Analysis and practice
# Post-reading activities are used as remedial task to check whether students are able to produce the grammatical pattern and vocabulary learnt in some tasks (crossword, paragraph writing, and conversation). It involves collaboration, natural context for language use, and solving problem.

3. AUTONOMOUS LEARNING
In this approach, teacher gradually reduces direction and support as the learner increases in maturity and confidence. Student should undergo the ‘experiential learning cycle’ through concrete experience, observation and reflection, abstract conceptualisation, and active experimentation in order to develop independence. They are encouraged to :
· Set their own learning aims
· Make choices over learning modes
· Plan and organise work
· Decide when best to work alone, work collaboratively and when to seek advice
· Learn through experience
· Identify and solve problems
· Think creatively
· Communicate effectively orally and in writing
· Assess their own progress in respect of their aims

ANALYSIS

This lesson encourages the students to engage in problem solving and collaboration . While students engage in Pre-reading activity, Reading activity, and Post-reading activity, the teacher’s guidance decreases. However, this lesson does not give students the opportunity to select their own text for the language input and for follow up activity. The text which is not interesting for teenagers may demotivate them to learn. Students are not given guidance on self-assesment. As a result, they have no idea how to set their own aims and how to achieve them.

4. CONTENT BASED INSTRUCTION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
In this approach, the language is utilized as the medium for teaching subject matters, such as science, social studies, biology, or mathematics. CBI allows schools to combine the goals of language curriculum and the regular curriculum, making language learning the vehicle for strengthening the language skills as well as content knowledge (Echevarria, 2000). Mohan (1986) indicates that the goal of integration in CBI is both language and content learning. The benefits of learning language through subject content are evident in learners’ language and content acquisition. When the students are studying a content area of interest (i.e. tsunami, Gulf War, immigration, etc), they are more intrinsically motivated to learn both the content and the language simultaneously. The students are actually able to use their new language. Content Based Learning is most appropriate at intermediate and advanced proficiency levels.

Some examples of content based curricula:
· Immersion program
· Sheltered English programs
· Writing across the curriculum (where writing skills in secondary schools and universities are taught within subject-matter areas like biology, history, art, etc.)

ANALYSIS

This lesson is not content-based but language based. This lesson is for elementary level students to develop their language competence.

5. FOCUS ON FORM, FOCUS ON FORMS, FOCUS ON MEANING

FOCUS ON MEANING MEANING
· IDEATIONAL (getting the message across)
· TEXTUAL (making the message readily accessible)
· INTERPERSONAL (taking account of the receiver and presentation of self)

FOCUS ON FORM (ACCURACY)
1.A focus on one or two forms, specified by the teacher.
2.Learners’ language production is controlled by the teacher.
3.The success of the procedure is judged in terms of whether or not learners do
produce the target forms with an acceptable level of accuracy.

FOCUS ON FORMS
· Isolation or extraction of linguistic features from context or communicative activity

ANALYSIS

This lesson is focus on meaning. Its function of language is ideational as it puts forward information as to what ideas the author is trying to get across. A news item is used to convey the message of the text. This is called the textual metafunction. The news is an interpersonal metafunction as the writer is communicating to the reader.

6. LANGUAGE BASED THEORY

Michael Halliday’s theory (1980) works through three main stages:
·Learning language: semantic- lexicogrammatical-graphophonic
·Learning through language: the outside language (in consciousness), and the inside
language (the imagination).
·Learning about language: field, tenor and mode

ANALYSIS

The three stages of language based theory is applied in this lesson. Student learn the lexicogrammatical (structure), use the language to understand text and to interact with other students (conversation).

7. PROBLEM BASED LEARNING

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a model that enables students to work cooperatively by finding solutions to real world problems and learning by doing, searching and involving the solution activity. PBL prepares students to think critically and analytically, and to find and use appropriate learning resources in groups. They share their ideas, discuss their thoughts, write what they agreed, go through to develop solutions, learn to speak and write effectively. Also, students develop their vocabulary, grammar knowledge and social language usage by the help of this method. In short, they construct an understanding of language as it is used in real-world contexts.

ANALYSIS

Pre-reading activity, Reading activity and Post-reading activity i this lesson require students to work cooperatively to find solutions using the vocabulary and grammar knowledge learnt. However, the problems are not real world problems. The activities are textbook problem oriented.

Annotated Bibliography 4

Annotated Bibliography 4
Kasper, Gabriele. (2000). Four Perspectives on L2 Pragmatic Development
( http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/Networks/Nwig/default/html )

The writer bases the discussion on Canale and Swain’s framework of grammatical, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence. Since then, many experiments have been conducted to examine other influential factors which may contribute to L2 pragmatic development. This paper discusses how four perspectives on pragmatic development relate to each other.

The first perspective is pragmatic and grammar. Bardovi-Harlig and Dornyei (1998) find that “pragmatic and grammatical awareness are largely independent and that their development may be associated with different learning environments in a rather complex fashion” ( p.6). L2 learners with high grammatical competence might use the grammatical rules inappropriately in real communication. For them, grammatical errors are more serious than pragmatic errors while L2 learners with low grammatical competence show the opposite tendency.

The second perspective is information process which is derived from psychological paradigm. There are two most influential proposals. Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis (1986) says language input can become intake and later on will be available for further processing if it is noticed consciously (p. 14). Bialystok’s two dimensional model of L2 proficiency development (1993, 1994) explain “the development of already available knowledge along the dimensions of analyzed representation and control of processing” (p. 14).

The third perspective is sociocognitive theory which is based on Vygotsky’s notion of Zone of Proximal Development. Learners’ pragmatic competence develops if they engage in interaction. It is true that explicit instruction pushes learners to use the language in social interaction appropriately. In contrast, some studies show that without any explicit instruction, learners gradually develop their pragmatic competence due to the interactional demand (p. 22).

The fourth perspective is language socialization. Learning a foreign language is more than learning the language. L2 learners should also learn second culture (C2) in order to interact with native speakers appropriately (p. 33). Language teachers with communicative and culture repertoire enable to support learners’ learning of L2 pragmatics effectively. Therefore, language teachers do not have to be natives of L2 but they have to be experts in L2 (p. 33).

This article is very hard to comprehend. The reader finds difficulty in understanding the main idea of each perspective. Unfamiliarity with many new terminologies related to pragmatic development has been somewhat discouraging the reader to continue reading more seriously. This burden lessens when the article is being discussed in the class. The knowledge of perspectives in pragmatic development helps the reader to analyze the phenomenon in L2 classroom.

Annotated Bibliography 3

Annotated Bibliography 3
Culhane, Stephen F. (2004). An Intercultural Interaction Model: Acculturation Attitudes in Second Language Acquisition. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 1(1), 50-61.

This paper discusses approaches in sojourner research to understand how motivation to interact in the second language (L2) and in a second culture (C2) relates to attitudes toward second language acquisition (SLA). The writer reviews a variety of perspectives by an eclectic group of researchers. He proposes an intercultural model, termed as the Intercultural Interaction Model, to enhance understanding of SLA by integrating factors from acculturation research.


The writer begins with the overview of learner motivation in SLA. He referred to Gardner’s theory of learner motivation (1959) which consists of instrumental and integrative motivation (p. 4). Instrumental motivation refers to individual primary concern whereas integrative motivation is driven by social interactions. Accordingly, instrumental motivation has a primary role in learning L2.

In other studies, Berry et al (1986) view that attitudes toward acculturation also contributes an important impact on the process of SLA. Berry sees that a learner’s attitudes in perceiving home culture (C1) and host culture (C2), and a learner’s level of acculturation determine the success of his SLA. The patterns of acculturation are termed as integration, assimilation, separation and marginalization (p.5). Ward and Kennedy (1994), later on, find that “sojourners with Integrated and Assimilated acculturation attitudes demonstrated lower level of sociocultural difficulties than ones with Separated and Marginalized attitudes” (p.7). As a result, these Integrated and Assimilated acculturation attitudes can accelerate the process of SLA.

The writer combines Gardner’s integrative and instrumental motivation with Berry’s four acculturation patterns into an orientation toward learning a new culture and language within an L2 speaking community or authentic L2/C2 context. He proposes three levels of functioning: instrumental, integrative, and psycho-social functioning (p.9). The level of functioning a learner adopts shows his relative balance of instrumental and integrative motivation. This should be recognized as a fundamental and determinant of SLA and acculturation (p. 14).

The reader finds this article worth reading. The reader’s prior knowledge of integrative and instrumental motivation helps her understand further studies on motivation in SLA. In the reader’s point of view, Berry’s four acculturation patterns and Culhane’s three levels of functioning can be applied only for L2 learners in authentic L2/C2 context. Further study on motivation should be conducted with L2 learners who never have any contact with authentic L2/C2 context. The future findings may eliminate the failure of SLA in L1/C1 context.

Annotated Bibliography 2

Annotated Bibliography 2
Bongaerts, Theo. et al (1995). Age and Ultimate Attainment in the Pronunciation of a Foreign Language. SSLA, 19, 447-465.

This article reports on two studies which aim to find out whether late L2 learners can achieve authentic, nativelike pronunciation of a foreign language. The experiments are conducted to provide some evidences that former theory on a critical period for second language acquisition needs reviewing. In the experiments, experienced and inexperienced native speakers of English are asked to rate the pronunciation of highly successful Dutch learners of English.

The writers start the article with the review of Lenneberg’s argument (1967) on the impossibility of complete mastery of L2 owing to the loss of neural plasticity around the onset of puberty (p. 447). Then, Schovel (1988) beats the predictions of the critical period hypothesis for some superexceptional learners (p. 450-451). To examine both opinions of the critical period hypothesis, the writers design two experiments with a carefully selected group of highly successful Dutch learners of English. The result of the studies reveals that some individuals in both groups can achieve nativelike pronunciation despite the fact that they already passed their puberty when starting learning L2. This fairly exceptional phenomenon may relate to some factors. Firstly, these individuals have greater neurocognitive flexibility than normal population of late L2 learners. Then, they constitute very highly motivated learners. Most of them are English teachers at the university levels. Therefore, being able to speak English without a Dutch accent is very important. Another important factor is that all learners in both groups have received intensive training both in the reception and in the production of the speech sounds of British English (p. 462-463).

The reader would find difficulties to understand the article if she did not have prior knowledge of Critical Period Hypothesis in SLA. The explanation of how the experiments are done is easy to follow. It enhances the reader’s comprehension of the issue. However, the reader suggests that a further study be conducted with late L2 learners whose mother tongue is not typologically related to English. The findings might be different. In addition to this, “pronunciation is the language performance that has a neuromuscular basis” (p.448). Thus, the reader believes that every late L2 learner will achieve different level of attainment in the pronunciation of L2 from the other learner due to their different neuromuscular system.

Annotated Bibliography 1

Annotated Bibliography 1
Canale, Michael and Merril Swain. (1979). Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing. Applied Linguistics, 1 (1), 1-47.

This article is the proposal of a theoretical framework for communicative competence and its implications for second language teaching and testing. The authors base on their proposal on various theories of communicative competence that have been proposed by former linguists.

Chomsky (1965) introduced the concepts of competence and performance (p.3). A few years later many applied linguists broadened his concepts. Van Ek (1976) says that students can develop their communicative competence at early stages with the basic communication skills. These skills help them to survive (linguistically speaking) in temporary contacts with foreign language speaker in everyday situations (p.9). While Halliday (1973) and Hymes (1972) who bring the sociolinguistic perspectives into Chomsky’s linguistic view of competence claim that communicative competence is concerned with the interaction of social context, grammar, and social meaning (p.19). According to Widdowson, communicative abilities have to be developed at the same time as the linguistic skills; otherwise the mere acquisition of the linguistic skills may inhibit the development of communicative abilities. He distinguishes two aspects of performance : “usage” (learner’s knowledge of linguistic rules) and “use” (learner’s ability to use his linguistic rules for effective communication).
Canale and Swain, then, study that those theorists have a little attention to communication strategies, the establishment of grammatical and semantic concepts, and the evaluation and levels of achievement (p.25). They propose their own theory of communicative competence that minimally includes three main competencies: grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic competence. Grammatical competence includes knowledge of lexical items and of rules of morphology, syntax, and semantics. This competence is important for providing learners with knowledge of how to determine and express accurately the literal meaning of utterances. Sociolinguistics competence is made up of two sets of rules of use and rules of discourse. This competence is important in interpreting utterances for social meaning. Strategic competence is made up of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be used to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or to insufficient grammatical competence.

This article is considered hard to read but very beneficial to widen the reader’s knowledge on the background theories of communicative approach development in language teaching and testing. According to this approach the objective of foreign language teaching and testing is to help learners to develop their communicative competence. Therefore, the reader now understands that syllabus design, teaching methodology, teacher training, and material development should be planned on the basis of communicative functions.

The Advantages of Using L1 in L2 Classroom

The Advantages of Using L1 in L2 Classroom

Audiolingual method, the communicative approach, or task-based learning have advocated L2 only method. One reason of using this method is that the exposure to L2 outside the classroom is rather scarce. As Cook says that “the use of L1 is perceived to hinder the learning of L2 “ (as quoted in Zacharias 2000). On the contrary, many ELT professionals have suggested reexamining the English only approach in the L2 classroom. Prodromou reminds us that there is much potential for using L1 in language learning contexts rather than abusing it (as quoted in Juarez and Oxbrow 2008). Therefore, when not used excessively, L1 is beneficial in L2 classroom.

First of all, the use of L1 enhances relaxed classroom atmosphere. Both teacher and students are given the opportunity to use L1 in certain situations. In such a less threatening classroom, students’ anxiety can be minimized. Rivera finds that allowing students to use L1 makes them feel less intimidated (Auerbach 1993). In addition, students feel freer to express their ideas. Whenever they do not know a particular lexical item in L2, they can switch to the one in L1, for example “How do you say menerkam in English ?” Bolitho sees this phenomenon as a valuable humanistic element in the classroom (Atkinson 1987). When this happens, learning takes place.

In addition, L1 is useful in managing the class. Explaining grammar concept through L1 saves time. Piasecka states that for novice students, grammar explanation in L2 is useless because their language repertoire is limited (as quoted in Auerbach 1993). Atkinson advises teachers to use L1 “when a correlate structure does not exist in L1 such as a verb tense” (as quoted in Harbord 1992). Checking students’ comprehension and correcting errors can be conducted in L1, too. This strategy is believed to be very helpful to avoid misunderstanding (Harbord 1992). Giving instruction in L1 helps teachers keep the class moving at early levels. Harbord (1992) asserts that teacher can use L1 to simplify a complex activity. Moreover, a research done by Lameta-Tufuga reveals that students can fully understand the content of the written task through L1 (as quoted in Nation 2003). Eventually, these procedures help teachers to achieve the objective of the lesson.

Most important, permitting students to use L accelerates students’ L2 acquisition process. Students learn new vocabulary faster through L1. Laufer and Shmueli claim “studies comparing the effectiveness of various methods for learning always come up with the result that an L1 translation is the most effective” (as quoted in Nation 2001). If students are aware of similarities and differences between L1 and L2, they can avoid errors which could be derived from the transfer of their L1. Ferrer (2005) takes the view that the use of L1 enable students to “notice the gap between their inner grammars and the target language and ultimately, through constant hyphotesis testing, achieve higher levels of grammatical as well as communicative competence”. This awareness contributes to L2 acquisition process.

Even though many language teachers oppose the issue of L1 use in L2 classroom, literature provide evidence that L1 use in L2 classroom is advantageous if not overused. Due to friendly classroom atmosphere, students feel more comfortable so they are motivated to learn. The use of L1 makes it possible for teacher to manage the class more effectively. Through L1, students experience faster L2 acquisition process.


References
Atkinson, D. 1987. “The mother tongue in the classroom: A neglected resource”. ELT
Journal, 41(4): 241-247.
Auerbach, Elsa Roberts. 1993. “Reexamining English only in the ESL classroom”. TESOL
Qarterly, 27(1): 9-31.
Ferrer, V. (2005). “ The use of the mother tongue in the classroom: Cross-linguistic
comparisons, noticing and explicit knowledge”.
(Online: http://www.teachenglish worldwide.com/Articles.htm.).
Harbord, J.1999. “The use mother tongue in the classroom”. ELT Journal, 46(4):
402-423
Juarez, Carolina Rodriquez and Gina Oxbrow. 2008. “L1 in the EFL classroom: More a
help than a hindrance ?” Porta Linguarum, 9(1): 99-109.
Nation, Paul. 2003. “The role of the first language in foreign language learning”.
Asian EFL Journal, 5(2).
(Online: http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/june 2003 Rn.html )
Zacharias, Nugrahenny T. 2000. “Teacher’s belief about the use of the students’
mother tongue: A survey of tertiary English teachers in Indonesia”. English
Australia Journal,22:44-52.